The GRFP recognizes and supports outstanding graduate students in NSF-supported science, technology, engineering and mathematics disciplines who are pursuing research-based master’s and doctoral degrees at accredited U.S. institutions. Program participants are seen as future experts who will contribute significantly to research, education and innovation in the STEM fields.

Computer science and mathematics major Mithra Karamchedu has been involved in three main research projects as a student at 91̽�� Mudd. “Since my freshman year, I’ve been working with computer science professor Lucas Bang on research in graph algorithms, where we study the problem of generating the spanning trees of a graph G up to the automorphisms or ‘symmetries’ of G,” he says. “I’ve also been doing research in Ramsey theory with former HMC President Maria Klawe, my brother Chaitanya Karamchedu ‘21 and mathematics professor Andrés Vindas Meléndez. In our research, we attempt to determine the Ramsey numbers of graphs known as ‘double stars.’ As part of an REU program with the Santa Fe Institute after my sophomore year, I’ve also been working with Cristopher Moore and Gülce Kardeş, researching the so-called ‘phase transitions’ in hard computational problems.”

Karamchedu is a member of the HMC improv club DUCK! and has been an Academic Excellence tutor for mathematics and a CS department grutor. This fall, he will begin a PhD in theoretical computer science at Columbia University, where he hopes to specialize in combinatorial algorithms and complexity theory.

During her sophomore year, engineering major Marika Ragnartz conducted research in Professor Steven Santana’s lab, working on developing a 3D bioprinter to print synthetic tissue. However, she says, “most of my experiences have actually not been in research labs. I was part of the Summer Entrepreneurship Studio at Mudd and worked on a project with my friend Sara Wexler ‘26 making a thermoelectric-cooling wearable for multiple sclerosis patients. We received multiple grants to continue working on it past the summer. I’ve worked with two other startups, Lifemotion Medical Technology for Clinic and Telos Health during an internship, on devices for heart and lung failure patients and stroke patients.” Ragnartz also was a grutor and teaching assistant for E79 and has been a member of the 5C hip-hop group Groove Nation throughout her time at 91̽�� Mudd.

In the fall, Ragnartz will begin a PhD program in mechanical engineering at Northwestern University, doing research on soft robotics and controls for rehabilitation robotics.

“Models of opinion dynamics have the potential to explain how individual beliefs and collective opinions spread in a social network. However, many canonical models in this field are deterministic and thus fail to capture uncertainty present in social interactions,” says mathematics major Madeline Reeve. “My mathematics senior thesis focuses on how adding randomness affects long-term behavior in a class of opinion dynamics models called bounded-confidence models. In particular, my work focuses on when adding noise promotes consensus, or when all agents eventually adopt the same opinion.”

Reeve made the most of her summers during college. In 2023, she conducted biostatistics research at the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health. This work helps explain the natural history progression of oral cavity cancer when untreated in an individual. In 2025, she conducted research at Williams College as part of the SMALL REU, studying chip-firing games on Graphs, “totally different from my thesis and the more applied work I’ve done otherwise,” she says. “My research team and I proved theoretical results about a quantity called the gonality of a graph, a discrete analog of a classical concept in algebraic geometry.”

Since 2023, Reeve has worked for the Office of Career Services as a peer consultant, hosting workshops, meeting with Mudders to review their resumes and cover letters and helping organize OCS events. She has also been a mathematics department grutor, including for Math131: Mathematical Analysis 1, and an Academic Excellence mathematics tutor/facilitator. Reeve also served as a North Dorm president. 

After graduation, Reeve will move to Salt Lake City to pursue a PhD in mathematics at the University of Utah, where she plans to conduct research in applied mathematics and/or mathematical biology.

Lilian Zhu is a mathematics major with emphasis in environmental analysis and data science. With her thesis advisor, mathematics and climate professor Robert Sanchez, Zhu researched salinity feedbacks in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) for different climate models and studied how to disentangle natural versus anthropogenic forces in the AMOC response to rising CO2.

In 2024, Zhu participated in an REU at the Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences (BIOS) with advisors Rodney Johnson and Dennis McGillicuddy. Zhu investigated mesoscale eddy transformations using Argo float and satellite altimetry data and took part in weeklong research cruises to collect data. Zhu also worked at BIOS as an education intern, developing Python tutorial workshops for local Bermudian students to expand oceanographic data science knowledge for the BIOS Curriculum Enrichment program. 

“I spent the last two summers at the National Center for Atmospheric Research studying humidity trends in the U.S. Southwest with advisor Isla Simpson,” Zhu says. “Climate models simulate a rise in humidity contradicting observations that show a decline. My work analyzed evapotranspiration regimes within models and observations to diagnose this problem.”

At HMC, Zhu served as a grutor for the mathematics and CS departments. Having benefitted from the College’s Gateway to Exploring Mathematical Sciences program as a high school sophomore, Zhu volunteered as a mentor for the program’s monthly workshops throughout her time in college.

After graduation, Zhu will pursue a PhD in physical oceanography at MIT-WHOI, studying coral reef hydrodynamics and using machine learning to optimize the performance of autonomous underwater vehicles. “I’m excited to continue my outreach through both community education and creative science communication,” she says.

Both pianists study under the tutelage of Hao Huang, holder of the Bessie and Cecil Frankel Endowed Chair in Music at Scripps College. Huang praised the duo’s dedication, noting that their success is a testament to months of rigorous preparation. “Both Chengyi and Lucy are talented, devoted young pianists who have attained a really high level of musical as well as technical expertise as performers,” said Huang. “Their repertoire spanned different time periods, style genres and national identities. The music played by these outstanding young pianists was international in scope.”

Tang, who received a $1,200 prize intended for further musical study, called Professor Huang “the most influential person” in his musical development. “He taught me how to feel the music instead of just playing the note. I really developed my musicality studying from him.”

For Tang, the Polk Award—established by legendary violinist Jascha Heifetz to honor filmmaker and impresario Rudolph Polk— follows another significant achievement. Having also won this year’s Claremont Concert Orchestra (CCO) Concerto Competition, Tang is set to perform Liszt’s Piano Concerto No. 1 with the CCO at Garrison Theater on May 3.

Tang’s audition program reflected his intellectual and cultural curiosity:

• J.S. Bach: Fuga a 3 Sogetti from The Art of Fugue. Tang describes the unfinished piece as a “one-person quartet” that opens space for the imagination.
• Frédéric Chopin: Ballade No. 4. A technical and emotional piece that Tang has studied since childhood; he started playing the piano at age 3.
• Zhang Zhao: Pi Huang. An experimental work inspired by Beijing Opera. “I chose it because I wanted to bring something of my own cultural background into the audition,” Tang said.

As a student at 91̽�� Mudd, Tang’s interests in music and science converge in the Music Information Retrieval Lab, where Tang works with TJ Tsai, associate professor of engineering, on signal processing algorithms and machine learning models involving music. Tang practices the piano every day. “Piano is a relaxing time for me, so it’s not an additional stress,” he said. While Tang aims for a research career in computer science “with strong social impacts,” the piano remains “indispensable,” and he is considering music school.

Will, an engineering major with an interest in the aerospace industry, impressed the judges with a program that showcased a wide range of musical time periods and techniques. Her audition included Mozart’s Sonata No. 8 in A Minor, ���DZ辱��’s Scherzo No. 2, ���������������Բ�’s Nocturne Op. 38 No. 4, and the fourth movement of Prokofiev’s Sonata No. 2.

She credits her musical growth to a lineage of mentors. “I’ve benefited from having amazing teachers in school and at summer music festivals who have always inspired me to play at my best,” she said. Much like Tang, Will uses the piano as an essential outlet to balance her rigorous coursework.

The Polk Award is administered by The Claremont Colleges Services and is given on the basis of superior musical ability. Auditions for the Polk Award are open to students of The Claremont Colleges who play the violin, viola, cello, double bass or piano.

Johnson Ho ’27

Johnson Ho, a chemistry and biology major, conducted green chemistry research with Donald A. Strauss Professor of Chemistry David Vosburg. Since his first year, Ho has been researching the use of mild peptide-coupling reagents to form carbon-carbon bonds and synthesizing probes for protein assays. He has also been developing a green, one-pot method for synthesizing triazolodiazepines, a class of pharmaceutically relevant compounds.

Ho is a member of the Chemistry Academic Excellence team and is a mentor for 91̽�� Mudd’s Summer Institute, working with students underrepresented in STEM. He also volunteers at Pomona Valley Hospital Medical Center. After graduating, Ho plans to pursue a PhD in chemistry and explore his interests in endocrinology or cardiology. 

Cole Plepel ’27

A mathematics and computer science major, Cole Plepel conducted research across numerical linear algebra, combinatorics and quantum information. He studied randomized algorithms for tensor decomposition with Iris and Howard Critchell Assistant Professor of Mathematics Jamie Haddock, focusing on how approximate solutions to large linear systems affect the performance of the alternating least-squares algorithm.

Plepel later joined 91̽�� Mudd mathematics professor Andrés Vindas Meléndez’s research group, collaborating on work examining symmetries of symmetric edge polytopes. Plepel also worked with physics professor Jason Gallicchio on quantum position verification, evaluating cryptographic vulnerabilities and practical implementation challenges of protocols that use quantum mechanics and relativity to verify location.

Outside of academics, Plepel is a puzzle designer for MuddEscapes, the College’s escape room club. After graduating, he plans to pursue a PhD in cryptography.

Elio Thadhani ’27

Elio Thadhani is a physics major who has conducted research spanning astrophysics and quantum information. He improved a computational tool used to predict the long-term stability of exoplanet systems, and he is first author on a paper published in Research Notes of the AAS. Thadhani later conducted quantum information research, developing a protocol for efficient quantum communication under constrained resources. He contributed to research on quantum position verification and is working on developing and experimentally implementing adaptive entanglement witnessing protocols.

Thadhani serves as a physics tutor and grader, a Core Scholars tutor and a student mentor with the Office of Residential Life. After graduating, he plans to pursue a PhD in physics with a focus on quantum information.

All college sophomores and juniors are eligible to compete for Goldwater scholarships. Each year, the College nominates up to four students, and the Department Chairs Committee serves as the nominating body.

The Goldwater Foundation is a federally endowed agency established in 1986. The Scholarship Program honoring Senator Barry Goldwater was designed to foster and encourage outstanding students to pursue careers in the fields of mathematics, the natural sciences and engineering. The Goldwater Scholarship is the premier undergraduate award of its type in these fields.

In his project, “Adaptable Metrics to Assess and Improve Introductory CS,” Garcia examined how student work changes when large language models are introduced in 91̽�� Mudd’s introductory computing sequence. Garcia worked with Florence Lin ’27, Jenny Ngo ’27, Aidan Deshong ’28 and Edward Donson ’26. The team analyzed more than 1,000 student projects completed between 2018 and 2024 and compared work produced before and after AI tools entered the classroom to better understand how those tools may affect learning outcomes.

The study found measurable differences in introductory coursework. In the first course in the sequence, student code generally became more concise after AI tools were introduced, with statistically significant differences across most of the metrics examined. Projects drawing on AI used a narrower range of course concepts, suggesting greater focus but less integration across topics. In the second, more advanced course, the team found fewer changes overall, with most metrics showing no significant differences apart from an increase in lines of code. Together, those findings suggest AI may play different roles depending on students’ experience level and the goals of a course.

The work also reflects 91̽�� Mudd’s broader commitment to thoughtful experimentation in computing education. Garcia credited Zach Dodds, Leonhard-Johnson-Rae Professor of Computer Science, with helping create the conditions for the research.

“91̽�� Mudd is a very small liberal arts college, which gives us the ability to try new things in ways that larger institutions often can’t,” Garcia said. “Professor Dodds had this amazing idea to introduce AI to introductory CS, and with that came all this interesting data that basically nobody else in the world had, so we thought, why not analyze it and share our findings with everybody else?”

From Lin’s perspective, the project’s importance was rooted in curriculum development and its effect on student learning.

“I started this research because I was interested in curriculum development at an introductory CS level,” Lin said. “Curriculum development plays such a large role in students’ learning outcomes and being able to build a tool that could help with the iterative curriculum development process is why I have continued to stay involved with this type of research.”

Garcia, Lin and the rest of the team are continuing to refine their approach and are working to make their metrics more accessible through a web app, extending their research toward a tool that could support future course design at 91̽�� Mudd and beyond.

“This award is deeply meaningful to me because it reflects many years of shared work with students,” said Bang. “I have been fortunate to mentor large research groups, advise students applying to graduate school and help organize mentoring programs, like the , that create welcoming entry points into research communities. The recognition belongs as much to the students who took on these projects as to me. Seeing them grow, succeed and go on to support others is the most rewarding outcome, and this award affirms the value of investing time and care into that process.”

The citation for the CRA-E mentoring award described Bang as “deeply committed to undergraduate research mentorship at an institution without a graduate program, where undergraduates serve as the primary drivers and lead authors of research projects.” Over the past seven years, Bang has mentored more than 65 students across a wide range of computing, mathematical and interdisciplinary topics, resulting in 12 undergraduate lead-authored papers, 23 undergraduate co-authors and multiple undergraduate student research awards. His mentees have gone on to pursue PhD and M.S. programs at top institutions and research-oriented industry roles. 

In 2025, Bang was awarded a three-year, $45,000 grant from the National Science Foundation that funds travel, lodging and registration costs for up to 10 students per year to attend international workshops in programming languages research.

“Research has a large hidden curriculum,” said Bang. “Knowing how to ask questions, handle uncertainty, recover from failure and communicate ideas is rarely obvious, especially for first-generation students or those without prior exposure to research environments. Mentorship helps make those expectations visible and accessible to students from all backgrounds. It also gives them a chance to learn whether research is a good fit for them. Even students who ultimately choose other careers benefit from the experience because they gain problem-solving skills, independence and confidence that transfer broadly.”

Bang specializes in programming languages, and in addition to teaching computer science courses, he has conducted research with students in program analysis, software testing and verification, and the quantitative study of program complexity. His primary scholarship with students focuses on developing mathematical and algorithmic tools to measure and reason about the structure of programs, including the invention of the asymptotic path complexity metric. He also pursues interdisciplinary work at the intersections of computation, art, philosophy and literature.

“What I enjoy most is watching students grow,” Bang said. “At the beginning, many are unsure of themselves or hesitant to try difficult things. Over time, they develop confidence, persistence, communication skills and the ability to collaborate. Whether they continue into research or choose another path, they leave with a stronger sense of what they can do and how to tackle challenges. I value being able to support that process and help create opportunities where students can stretch themselves, discover new interests and carry those skills into whatever they pursue next.”

The Beckman Scholars Program is designed to stimulate and support research activities by talented, full-time undergraduates. At 91̽�� Mudd, the program will provide a distinct 15-month mentored research experience in chemistry, biochemistry, the biological and medical sciences, or interdisciplinary combinations of these fields.

A New Standard for Interdisciplinary Excellence

The 2026 BSP is designed to leverage the College’s highly interdisciplinary STEM enterprise by serving as a distinct and prestigious research fellowship that is open to students in biology, chemistry, engineering, mathematics and physics, as well as those pursuing computer science as a joint major with another discipline. This integration reflects the College’s institutional commitment to building the interdisciplinary pedagogy central to its mission.

“Engaging students in cutting-edge, graduate-level research is a hallmark of our mission to help young scientific investigators learn, grow and thrive,” said Karl Haushalter, vice president for academic affairs and dean of the faculty. “The tenets of Arnold Beckman’s life—innovation and integrity—are at the bedrock of 91̽�� Mudd’s mission. Implementing the Beckman Scholars Program is instrumental in shaping the future of our research endeavors, setting a new standard for excellence in leadership and discovery.”

The Scholar Experience: Beyond the Lab

Each Beckman Scholar will receive a $26,000 award package ($21,000 stipend for the student and $5,000 for mentor and institutional support). The 15-month commitment includes two full-time summer research terms and academic year research credits.

Beyond laboratory work, Scholars will participate in a comprehensive professional development suite:

• Leadership & Networking: Scholars will plan and host the Beckman Scholars Program Seminar Series, inviting and networking with renowned external scientists.
• Scientific Communication: Students will undergo training in scientific writing, oral presentation and guided peer review. During the College’s fall research conference, Beckman Scholars will showcase the research they conducted during the summer and share their experiences participating in the BSP.
• Advanced Mentorship: Scholars will be trained on high-caliber instrumentation and receive personalized coaching for employment and graduate school preparation and for prestigious fellowships such as the NSF-GRFP, Hertz and Goldwater scholarships.

Cultivating Future STEM Leaders

The Beckman Foundation’s focus on fostering the invention of new methods and materials aligns seamlessly with 91̽�� Mudd’s vibrant research enterprise. The College has a proven track record with the program; former HMC Beckman Scholars have gone on to forge successful careers in medicine, academia and the private sector, with two having served on the College’s board of trustees.

Participating Faculty Mentors

The 2026 cohort will be supported by faculty mentors across diverse disciplines:

• Chemistry: Spencer Brucks, Colm Healy, Maduka Ogba, David Vosburg, Bilin Zhuang
• Biology: Danae Schulz
• Physics: Mark Ilton
• Engineering: Albert Dato
• Mathematics: Lisette de Pillis
• Computer Science: Calden Wloka

Application Information

The application for the Beckman Scholars Program opened to rising 91̽�� Mudd sophomores, juniors and seniors on Jan. 16, 2026, and closes on Feb. 6, 2026. The selection process is designed to identify and support outstanding students from a wide variety of backgrounds and life experiences who demonstrate a strong commitment to advancing their academic and professional goals in STEM.

About 91̽��: 91̽�� is the premier liberal arts college of engineering, science and mathematics. The College’s mission is to educate engineers, scientists and mathematicians of the highest ability who also have a clear understanding of the impact of their work on society.

About the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation: Located in Irvine, California, the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation supports leading-edge research in chemistry and the life sciences, and fosters the invention of methods, instruments and materials that open up new avenues of research and application.

Sullivan and Bhatia were part of a four-person team that tackled a challenge from Array Technologies: creating a tool to weigh tradeoffs between steel cost and carbon footprint across global supply chains and consider purchasing methods. Their solution incorporated climate-adjusted pricing for carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and freshwater use for large steel mills within top steel-producing countries, along with modeling for various steel and steel derivatives purchasing strategies.

Bhatia, a physics and computer science major (political science concentration), said the team approached the event eager to contribute to meaningful climate solutions. Although new to hackathons, she conducted extensive preparation, researching industrial decarbonization and meeting with professors for insight. She and Sullivan, a computer science-math and economics double major, formed a team with students from MIT and Harvard, combining strengths in research, software development, and finance.

“We were really happy with our team’s variety of strengths,” said Bhatia, who enjoys research. “Our teams’ engineering and software experience helped us move quickly. And Lucas’s economics background was crucial to coming up with our idea. His climate economics course with Dede Long, assistant professor of economics at 91̽�� Mudd, informed my contribution: researching ways to price the social costs of environmental damage.”

“Lucas shared that they estimated carbon and sulfur dioxide pricing using models we discussed in class—and even used a method from one of my assigned readings,” Long said. “Their success demonstrates what makes Mudd special: when a liberal arts education is deeply intertwined with rigorous STEM training, students are prepared to take on the world’s most complex problems.”

The team worked through the weekend, culminating in an all-night coding session for Bhatia and Sullivan. They presented their final product to Array Technologies’ judges on the final morning, and to their surprise, advanced to the semifinals and ultimately earned second place overall.

Reflecting on the experience, Bhatia said, “The sponsors from Array Technologies were incredibly supportive and gave us valuable guidance. Our solution stood out because it met the sponsor’s needs and approached the problem differently than other teams. I loved the experience and learned so much.”

Sullivan and Bhatia are active members of the 91̽�� Mudd community, pursuing research and leadership roles across campus.

What is your favorite part about your job and why?

I like a lot of things about my job, but the people I work with—the staff, students and faculty—are the best.

If you could swap jobs with any other HMC employee for a day, who would it be and why

I don’t think I would. I really love my role!

What’s your favorite food/dish in the Hoch-Shanahan Dining Hall?

Vegan chocolate chip cookies.

What HMC events have made you feel really connected to other HMC colleagues?

Projects Day. Working with Engineering Clinic Project Manager Lorena González during Projects Day is really awesome. Combining all Clinic teams and working with the whole campus (shoutout to Dining Services, F&M and Communications) is really exciting.

What is your favorite hobby, activity or creative outlet?

I have a handmade needle felting art business called Green Mermaid. I sell my sculptures at art fairs and markets in the Burbank, Pasadena and Claremont areas. I have a BFA in illustration and have done commissioned work pretty consistently since graduating. Over the last two years, I’ve switched from digital art to needle felt. You can check out my stuff on my Instagram @greenmermaidbymorgan.

What is the best piece of advice someone has given you, either in life or at work?

You are not your job. This is very meaningful to me as a creative person with a very different day job.

What is your most effective strategy for dealing with stress?

Walking!

What is the last concert you attended?

Weird Al at the Kia Forum.

The team—Bryce Tu Chi ’25, Stephanie Fulcar ’25, Jonathan Ipe ’25, Olivia Schleifer ’25, Rohan Subramanian ’25 and Claire Vlases CMC ’25—was advised by adjunct Professor of Computer Science Naim Matasci. Their work supports a Department of Energy (DOE) and National Cancer Institute initiative aimed at understanding how RAS–RAF protein interactions drive nearly 30% of human cancers.

The project focused on expanding access to MuMMI (multiscale machine-learned modeling infrastructure), a powerful simulation framework originally designed for DOE supercomputers, such as LLNL’s El Capitan—the most powerful supercomputer in the world. The Clinic team reengineered key components of the software to make it usable by a broader community of researchers and incorporated advanced AI algorithms to improve performance and accuracy.

Student Researchers Motivated

Olivia Schleifer says seeing the work published has been “incredibly rewarding,” marking the culmination of close collaboration between the Clinic team and LLNL scientists. “For many of us, this was our first experience taking a research project from idea to publication,” she says. “It’s given us a deeper appreciation for both the scientific process and the teamwork behind impactful research.” She hopes the machine-learning methods they developed will “help accelerate the design of new therapeutics” by potentially improving the speed and precision of computational drug-discovery pipelines.

Claire Vlases enjoyed the opportunity to use one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers and contribute to meaningful cancer research, “something most students only dream about.” The publication, she says, “shows us that we can do it. It’s motivating in a really deep way.” She says the team’s approach has the potential to lower computational barriers for researchers exploring mechanisms behind RAS-driven cancers, ultimately supporting new discoveries and potential treatments.

Project Goals Met

Matasci explains that the Clinic project filled a critical need in the national ADMIRRAL initiative (AI-Driven Multiscale Investigation of the RAS/RAF Activation Lifecycle). “Not everyone has access to DOE supercomputing resources and the expertise of the computational scientists who designed these tools,” he says. “The goal of the project, and the focus of this publication, was to make MUMMI accessible to the broader community of computational cancer researchers. The software is now available for download for everyone.”

He adds that publication was a stretch goal, one the students achieved through exceptional dedication and the mentorship of their LLNL partners. “The article’s inclusion in a special ACS collection highlighting undergraduate research ‘as the stimulus for scientific progress in the USA’ is incredibly fitting.”

The team’s accomplishment showcases the strength of 91̽�� Mudd’s Clinic Program which provides students with opportunities to contribute to high-impact scientific projects that advance both research and society.

Find the ACS Omega published paper here:

Bang is the recipient of a three-year, $45,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, an award that funds travel, lodging and registration costs for as many as 10 students per year to attend international workshops in programming languages research.

This year’s conference, the Programming Languages Mentoring Workshop, will be held in Singapore in October. It’s being offered in conjunction with the ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Systems, Programming, Languages and Applications: Software for Humanity (SPLASH).

The travel scholarships are targeted to U.S. college seniors and first-year graduate students. Attendees are able to immerse themselves in cutting-edge research and build professional connections.

“It will be a great opportunity for students to hear keynote talks from famous researchers and to interact with each other,” says Bang, who has been a panelist and mentor at previous events. “We try to get a mix of people from academia, as well as government and industry labs.

“Researchers are talking about the latest and greatest results in programming languages, implementation theory and design,” he adds. “Students will get to connect with graduate school advisers and build community. It’s a very positive experience.”

The Singapore workshop will explore a new source of programming languages: artificial intelligence. “We’ve now got AI systems generating code,” Bang says.

Bang teaches programming languages at 91̽�� Mudd. “I try to demystify how programming works under the hood,” he says. While new languages pop up frequently, the principles behind them are relatively stable. “If you understand the principles, you can approach almost any language with confidence.”

Programming language dates back to the 19th century, when English mathematician Charles Babbage came up with the idea of a digital programmable computer. It was fellow English mathematician Ada Lovelace who considered potential applications of their so-called “analytical engine.” The engine was never built and remained a concept.

“Some languages are popular and hang on, and there are lots of new languages that people are talking about, such as Rust,” Bang says. “It’s really good for creating safe systems that don’t have security flaws. Basically, all modern technology uses some programming language.”